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Of the land which the Romans gained by conquest from their
neighbours, part they sold publicly, and turned the remainder into common;
this common land they assigned to such of the citizens as were poor and
indigent, for which they were to pay only a small acknowledgment into the
public treasury. But when the wealthy men began to offer larger rents, and
drive the poorer people out, it was enacted by law that no person whatever
should enjoy more than five hundred acres of ground. This act for some time
checked the avarice of the richer, and was of great assistance to the poorer
people, who retained under it their respective proportions of ground, as they
had been formerly rented by them. Afterwards the rich men of the
neighbourhood contrived to get these lands again into their possession, under
other people's names, and at last would not stick to claim most of them
publicly in their own. The
poor, who were thus deprived of their farms, were no longer either ready, as
they had formerly been, to serve in war or careful in the education of their
children; insomuch that in a short time there were comparatively few freemen
remaining in all Italy, which swarmed with workhouses full of foreign-born
slaves. These the rich men employed in cultivating their ground of which they
dispossessed the citizens. Caius Laelius, the intimate friend of
Scipio, undertook to reform this abuse; but meeting with opposition from men
of authority, and fearing a disturbance, he soon desisted, and received the
name of the Wise or the Prudent, both which meanings belong to the Latin word
Sapiens.
But
Tiberius, being elected tribune of the people,1
entered upon that design without delay, at the instigation, as is most
commonly stated, of Diophanes, the rhetorician, and Blossius, the
philosopher. Diophanes was a refugee from Mitylene, the other was an Italian,
of the city of Cuma, and was educated there under Antipater of Tarsus, who
afterwards did him the honour to dedicate some of his philosophical lectures
to him.
Some
have also charged Cornelia, the mother of Tiberius, with contributing towards
it, because she frequently upbraided her sons, that the Romans as yet rather
called her the daughter of Scipio [Africanus], than the mother of the
Gracchi. Others again say that Spurius Postumius was the chief occasion. He
was a man of the same age with Tiberius, and his rival for reputation as a
public speaker; and when Tiberius, at his return from the campaign, found him
to have got far beyond him in fame and influence, and to be much looked up
to, he thought to outdo him, by attempting a popular enterprise of this
difficulty and of such great consequence. But his brother Caius has left it
us in writing, that when Tiberius went through Tuscany to Numantia, and found the country almost
depopulated, there being hardly any free husbandmen or shepherds, but for the
most part only barbarian, imported slaves, he then first conceived the
course of policy which in the sequel proved so fatal to his family. Though it
is also most certain that the people themselves chiefly excited his zeal and
determination in the prosecution of it, by setting up writings upon the
porches, walls, and monuments, calling upon him to reinstate the poor
citizens in their former possessions.
However,
he did not draw up his law without the advice and assistance of those
citizens that were then most eminent for their virtue and authority; amongst
whom were Crassus, the high-priest, Mucius Scaevola, the lawyer, who at that
time was consul, and Claudius Appius, his father-in-law. Never did any law
appear more moderate and gentle, especially being enacted against such great
oppression and avarice. For they who ought to have been severely punished for
trangressing the former laws, and should at least have lost all their titles
to such lands which they had unjustly usurped, were notwithstanding to
receive a price for quitting their unlawful claims, and giving up their lands
to those fit owners who stood in need of help. But though this reformation
was managed with so much tenderness that, all the former transactions being
passed over, the people were only thankful to prevent abuses of the like
nature for the future, yet, on the other hand, the moneyed men, and those of great estates,
were exasperated, through their covetous feelings against the law itself, and
against the lawgiver, through anger and party-spirit. They therefore endeavoured to seduce the
people, declaring that Tiberius was designing a general redivision of lands,
to overthrow the government, and cut all things into confusion.
...
Senators and other wealthy
Romans began to fear that Tiberius would enact laws to take from them all
their wealth; they also resented his circumvention of the Senate, for he
intended to achieve land reform through action of the popular assembly. So
they recruited Octavius, another tribune of the people, to use his power to
veto the legislation Tiberius had proposed. The stage was set for conflict at
the assembly.
...
When
the day appointed [for the vote on the land reform bill] was come, and the
people summoned to give their votes, the rich men seized upon the voting urns and carried
them away by force; thus all things were in confusion. But when
Tiberius's party appeared strong enough to oppose the contrary faction, and
drew together in a body, with the resolution to do so, Manlius and Fulvius,
two of the consular quality, threw themselves before Tiberius, took him by
the hand, and, with tears in their eyes, begged of him to desist. Tiberius,
considering the mischiefs that were all but now occurring, and having a great
respect for two such eminent persons, demanded of them what they would advise
him to do. They acknowledged themselves unfit to advise in a matter of so
great importance, but earnestly entreated him to leave it to the
determination of the senate. But when the senate assembled, and could not
bring the business to any result, through the prevalence of the rich faction,
he then was driven to a course neither legal nor fair, and proposed to deprive Octavius
of his tribuneship, it being impossible for him in any other way to get the law
brought to the vote. At first he addressed him publicly, with
entreaties couched in the kindest terms, and taking him by his hands,
besought him, that now, in the presence of all the people, he would take this
opportunity to oblige them, in granting only that request which was in itself
so just and reasonable, being but a small recompense in regard of those many
dangers and hardships which they had undergone for the public safety.
Octavius, however, would by no means be persuaded to compliance; upon which
Tiberius declared openly, that, seeing they two were united in the same
office, and of equal authority, it would be a difficult matter to compose
their difference on so weighty a matter without a civil war; and that the
only remedy which he knew must be the deposing of one of them from their
office. He desired, therefore, that Octavius would summon the people to pass
their verdict upon him first, averring that he would willingly relinquish his
authority if the citizens desired it. Octavius refused; and Tiberius then
said he would himself put to the people the question of Octavius's
deposition, if upon mature deliberation he did not alter his mind and after
this declaration he adjourned the assembly till the next day.
When
the people were met together again, Tiberius placed himself in the rostra,
and endeavoured a second time to persuade Octavius. But all being to no
purpose, he referred the whole matter to the people, calling on them to vote
at once, whether Octavius should be deposed or not; and when seventeen of the
thirty-five tribes had already voted against him, and there wanted only the
votes of one tribe more for his final deprivation, Tiberius put a short stop
to the proceedings, and once more renewed his importunities; he embraced and
kissed him before all the assembly, begging with all the earnestness
imaginable, that he would neither suffer himself to incur the dishonour, nor
him to be reputed the author and promoter of so odious a measure. Octavius,
we are told, did seem a little softened and moved with these entreaties; his
eyes filled with tears, and he continued silent for a considerable time. But
presently looking towards the rich men and proprietors of estates, who stood
gathered in a body together, partly for shame, and partly for fear of disgracing
himself with them, he boldly bade Tiberius use any severity he pleased. The law for his deprivation
being thus voted, Tiberius ordered one of his servants, whom he had made a
freeman, to remove Octavius from the rostra, employing his own domestic freed
servants in the stead of the public officers. And it made the action
seem all the sadder, that Octavius was dragged out in such an ignominious
manner. The people immediately assaulted him, whilst the rich men ran in to
his assistance. Octavius, with some difficulty, was snatched away and safely
conveyed out of the crowd; though a trusty servant of his, who had placed
himself in front of his master that he might assist his escape, in keeping
off the multitude, had his eyes struck out, much to the displeasure of
Tiberius, who ran with all haste, when he perceived the disturbance, to
appease the rioters.
...
His land reform scheme being
enacted, Tiberius seemed to have won. He enjoyed immense
popularity with the people his land commission benefited. It was rumored, probably
groundlessly, that Tiberius was prepared to declare himself king. For
his part, Tiberius began to sponsor legislation to curtail the power of the
Senate for that purpose alone. He had shown that a demagogue could arise in Rome and bypass the
ruling oligarchy and the usual constitutional arrangements. A murderous
conspiracy against him began to take shape.
...
Tiberius
then went down into the market-place amongst the people, and made his
addresses to them humbly and with tears in his eyes; and told them he had
just reason to suspect that his adversaries would attempt in the night-time
to break open his house and murder him. This worked so strongly with the
multitude, that several of them pitched tents round about his house, and kept
guard all night for the security of his person. By break of day came one of
the soothsayers, who prognosticate good or bad success by the pecking of
fowls, and threw them something to eat. The soothsayer used his utmost
endeavours to fright the fowls out of their coop; but none of them except one
would venture out, which fluttered with his left wing, and stretched out its
leg, and ran back again into the coop, without eating anything. This put
Tiberius in mind of another ill-omen which had formerly happened to him. He
had a very costly headpiece, which he made use of when he engaged in any
battle, and into this piece of armour two serpents crawled, laid eggs, and
brought forth young ones. The remembrance of which made Tiberius more
concerned now than otherwise he would have been. However, he went towards the
capitol as soon as he understood that the people were assembled there; but
before he got out of the house he stumbled upon the threshold with such
violence, that he broke the nail of his great toe, insomuch that blood gushed
out of his shoes. He was not gone very far before he saw two ravens fighting
on the top of a house which stood on his left hand as he passed along; and
though he was surrounded with a number of people, a stone struck from its
place by one of the ravens, fell just at his foot. This even the boldest men
about him felt as a check. But Blossius of Cuma, who was present, told him
that it would be a shame and an ignominious thing for Tiberius, who was a son
of Gracchus, the grandson of Scipio Africanus, and the protector of the Roman
people to refuse, for fear of a silly bird, to answer when his countrymen
called to him; and that his adversaries would represent it not as a mere
matter for their ridicule, but would declaim about it to the people as the
mark of a tyrannical temper, which felt a pride in taking liberties with the
people. At the same time several messengers came also from his friends, to
desire his presence at the capitol, saying that all things went there
according to expectation. And indeed Tiberius's first entrance there was in
every way successful; as soon as ever he appeared, the people welcomed him
with loud acclamations, and as he went up to his place, they repeated their
expressions of joy, and gathered in a body around him, so that no one who was
not well known to be his friend might approach. Mucius then began to put the
business again to the vote; but nothing could be performed in the usual
course and order, because of the disturbance caused by those who were on the
outside of the crowd, where there was a struggle going on with those of the
opposite party, who were pushing on and trying to force their way in and
establish themselves among them.
Whilst
things were in this confusion, Flavius Flaccus, a senator, standing in a
place where he could be seen, but at such a distance from Tiberius that he
could not make him hear, signified to him by motions of his hand, that he
wished to impart something of consequence to him in private. Tiberius ordered
the multitude to make way for him, by which means, though not without some
difficulty, Flavius got to him, and informed him that the rich men, in a sitting of the senate,
seeing they could not prevail upon the consul to espouse their quarrel, had
come to a final determination amongst themselves that he should be
assassinated, and to that purpose had a great number of their friends
and servants ready armed to accomplish it. Tiberius no sooner communicated
this confederacy to those about him, but they immediately tucked up their
gowns, broke the halberts which the officers used to keep the crowd off into
pieces, and distributed them among themselves, resolving to resist the attack
with these. Those who stood at a distance wondered, and asked what was the
occasion; Tiberius, knowing that they could not hear him at that distance,
lifted his hand to his head wishing to intimate the great danger which he
apprehended himself to be in. His adversaries, taking notice of that action,
ran off at once to the senate-house, and declared that Tiberius desired the
people to bestow a crown upon him, as if this were the meaning of his
touching his head. This news created general confusion in the senators, and
Nasica at once called upon the consul to punish this tyrant, and defend the
government. The consul mildly replied, that he would not be the first to do
any violence; and as he would not suffer any freeman to be put to death,
before sentence had lawfully passed upon him, so neither would he allow any
measure to be carried into effect, if by persuasion or compulsion on the part
of Tiberius the people had been induced to pass an unlawful vote. But Nasica, rising from his seat,
"Since the consul," said he, "regards not the safety of the
commonwealth, let every one who will defend the laws, follow me."
He then, casting the skirt of his gown over his head, hastened to the
capitol; those who bore him company, wrapped their gowns also about their
arms, and forced their way after him. And as they were persons of the
greatest authority in the city, the common people did not venture to obstruct
their passing, but were rather so eager to clear the way for them, that they
tumbled over one another in haste. The attendants they brought with them had furnished themselves with
clubs and staves from their houses, and they themselves picked up the feet
and other fragments of stools and chairs, which were broken by the hasty
flight of the common people. Thus armed, they made towards Tiberius,
knocking down those whom they found in front of him, and those were soon
wholly dispersed and many of them slain. Tiberius tried to save himself by
flight. As he was running, he was stopped by one who caught hold of him by
the gown; but he threw it off, and fled in his under-garment only. And
stumbling over those who before had been knocked down, as he was endeavouring
to get up again, Publius Satureius, a tribune, one of his colleagues, was
observed to give him the first fatal stroke, by hitting him upon the head with the foot of a stool.
The second blow was claimed, as though it had been a deed to be proud of, by
Lucius Rufus. And of the rest there fell above three hundred killed by clubs and staves
only, none by an iron weapon.
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